Ionuţ BELDIMAN^

Abstract. The continuous evolution of globalization has led to the emergence of both new oppor–tunities and challenges, posing significant threats that can have major negative effects on cybersecurity. Technological advancements and the widespread use of the internet are fundamental aspects of globalization, significantly contributing to the removal of communication and knowledge barriers, as well as the reconfiguration of global relationships. Technology and the internet provide access to information, and processed information transforms into knowledge and power. However, the online environment is constantly subjected to evolving threats, requiring an increase in user security and the protection of technological devices. Additionally, crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic or Moscow’s aggression against Ukrainattacke further jeopardize cybersecurity by reshaping and enhancing the means of attack. In this context, security measures need to be adopted by all involved actors at all levels. This paper aims to identify the evolution of cybersecurity in a constantly changing world, increasingly affected by new cyber threats with a significant impact on economic security.

Keywords: security, change, cyber attack, threats, adaptation, globalization

INTRODUCTION

Cyberspace represents a strategically important environment globally, encom-passing not only the internet and interconnected technologies but also user actions, activities that often involve processing, storing, generating, or transmitting data in electronic format. Consequently, cybersecurity refers to the set of measures necessary to protect information systems and networks, users, and/or other individuals affected by potential cyber threats. Cybersecurity aims to maintain the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of information. Current technologies, constantly evolving alongside user actions, can generate a significant negative impact on cybersecurity, both nationally and internationally. In the current context, the entire informational cybersecurity environment undergoes radical changes. The main challenges regar-ding cybersecurity revolve around the speed at which new risks and threats mater-ialize, as they tend to manifest before the identification of institutional procedures and necessary legislation to combat or reduce their negative impact. Cybersecurity threats require continuous technological innovations in response mechanisms, clear and concrete legislation, as well as the financial resources that support them, compared to traditional threats that only require predefined response mechanisms.

In a constantly changing world, cybersecurity has become an operational priority and a major policy for the European Commission. The crisis triggered by the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic emphasized the dependence on digital services (artificial intelligence, cloud computing, mobile devices) and a massive shift towards remote work to reduce infection with the new virus. In this regard, the scope of the main threats to the institutions, agencies, and bodies of the European Union, speci-fically espionage and cybercrime, has intensified, with industry experts focusing increasingly on the online environment.

The central element of this paper is the concept of cybersecurity and the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and the war between Russia and Ukraine on it, as these events have generated new threats to cybersecurity. This constitutes the research objective. An important aspect is given by the impact of the chosen research field, as the addressed topic is contemporary, and the specialized literature is in its early stages. The expected results are based on the identification, analysis, and comparison of relevant information, with the aim of addressing the proposed research questions, namely:

1. What is the European framework in the field of cybersecurity?

2. Why is cybersecurity important?

3. What is the impact of the war between Russia and Ukraine on cybersecurity?

4. What is the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on cybersecurity?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Cybersecurity in the era of globalization poses a complex challenge that requires a holistic approach to the connections, relationships, and interactions between tools and actors involved. The lack of a clear understanding of how these elements function generates uncertainty regarding regulations, thereby delaying the develop-ment of effective solutions. However, coherence in the governance of cybersecurity is essential to manage global challenges and facilitate coordination and adaptation of tools and institutions involved. The accelerated development of digital communi-cation platforms and the phenomenon of globalization have exposed people to massive amounts of information, leading to various threats to intellectual security, including extremism and terrorism. Additionally, cybersecurity measures are crucial to protect devices, networks, and data connected to the internet from unauthorized access and criminal use, ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. In the global context, the governance of cybercrime should adhere to principles such as protecting fundamental human rights, efficiently combating transnational cybercrime, and respecting the sovereignty of networks and judicial sovereignty of all countries. Given the global nature of cybercrimes, their jurisdiction requires distinct laws regulating such activities and including principles that facilitate the criminal prosecution of cybercriminals outside the territory of a country.

Globalization has influenced cybersecurity by intensifying the complexity and expanding the potential threats, alongside increasing the attack surface. In the era of globalization, global connections have consolidated more than ever, resulting in increased complexity and amplitude of potential cyber threats. Cybersecurity no longer entails defending a single computer system or network but involves protecting a broad and interconnected global infrastructure. This includes various aspects, ranging from individual devices to large-scale systems, such as power grids or financial markets. As interconnectivity grows, more potential entry points for malicious cyber actors emerge. Moreover, globalization has contributed to the development of sophisticated networks of cybercriminals who operate across borders. These well-funded and highly skilled groups can carry out complex and coordinated attacks with the potential for significant damage. They can exploit disparities in legislation and cybersecurity practices among different countries, complicating law enforcement efforts in tracking and prosecuting these criminals. Another significant impact of globalization on cyber-security stems from the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, increasing the quantity and diversity of devices connected to the internet. These devices, from smart home appliances to industrial control systems, often lack robust security measures, making them attractive targets for cybercriminals. The expansion of these devices has significantly widened the attack surface, making the task of securing networks and systems more challenging. Furthermore, globalization has led to the outsourcing of IT services to countries with lower labor costs. While this may reduce expenses, it can also introduce new security risks. For instance, if the outsourced service provider does not adhere to the same security standards as the benefiting company, exploitable vulnerabilities may arise for cybercriminals.

As Singer (2014) stated, just a generation ago, the “cyber realm” was only a concept from science fiction, but today, our way of life is crucially dependent on the internet, raising cybersecurity issues that impact politicians, generals, business leaders, and individuals, prompting questions about our rights and responsibilities in the online world and how to protect against new and poorly understood threats.

According to Korinek & Stiglitz (2021), the data leakage process is closely tied to the rapid growth trends of informational flow. The larger the volume of data, the more extensive this process becomes, following the provisions of common digital legislation. Concerning cybersecurity, it becomes a significant priority for all countries, considering the involved public laws. Information protection is crucial in this context. Simulta-neously, the three components – regulations, digital legislation, and cybersecurity measures – are closely interconnected, acting as a catalyst for globalization. Interna-tional transactions contribute to creating a borderless world where these aspects are fundamental, as stated by Globalization Partners (2020). Another perspective is that of author Kavtaradze (2022), who considers that globalization in the 20^th and early 21^st centuries was shaped by political actors, changes in international trade and the economy, with a notable influence of financial factors, and the emergence of “digital globalization” brought significant transformation through the massive dissemination of information and innovations via digital technologies.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology is complex, as it combines quantitative and quali-tative methods, as well as inductive and deductive approaches. Throughout the study, data on cybersecurity will be selected, processed, and analyzed, with incursions into specialized studies, legislative and comparative analyses. For theoretical concepts, primary sources have been selected, specifically legislative documents, cybersecurity strategies, or guidelines developed at the European level through designated structures in this field, such as ENISA (the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity). Subsequently, using the comparative method and content analysis, various legislative approaches are identified and studied.

This work contributes, in comparison to previously published research, with detailed and updated analyses regarding the impact generated by the Covid-19 pandemic and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine on cybersecurity.

RESEARCH RESULTS

The research results are represented based on the proposed research questions and aim to identify the impact of the pandemic and the war in Ukraine on cybersecurity. In this regard, to conduct a detailed analysis, the research results are presented separately, depending on the objectives pursued.

The European Framework in Cybersecurity

Incidents observed in recent years regarding cybersecurity have highlighted a continuous amplification and diversification of cyber threats, particularly in the online environment. Protecting critical infrastructures at both national and international levels has become a major concern, remaining a current topic for all involved parties, ranging from policymakers and citizens to the business sector. The European Union has taken measures to enhance preparedness and resilience in cybersecurity. European legislation refers, among other things, to:

a) “Regulation on the Protection of Personal Data and the Free Movement of Such Data (GDPR)”

An important role in the European cybersecurity framework is dedicated to aspects related to the protection of personal data. On April 27, 2016, the European Parliament and the Council adopted “Regulation (EU) No. 679 of 2016 on the protection of individuals concerning the processing of personal data and the free movement of such data (“General Data Protection Regulation” or GDPR).” Concerns about the protection of personal data at the European level constitute fundamental elements, representing a fundamental right guaranteed by the Treaty on European Union and the Charter of Fundamental Rights. The regulation aims to bring about significant changes by strengthening the rights guaranteed for individuals whose data is processed and simplifying administrative formalities carried out by operators processing such categories of data. The regulation expands the scope to include data operators not located within the Union but processing personal data of European citizens. Another novelty introduced by this regulation relates to the possibility of cooperation between supervisory authorities when data processing concerns indi-viduals from multiple European states, aiming to provide competence to the authorities of the involved states to ensure that data processing complies with established principles and rules. Regarding the main obligations of data operators, according to the regulation, they include:

– Designating a data protection officer;

– Prioritizing necessary actions to be taken;

– Mapping the processing of personal data;

– Managing risks;

– Identifying and developing internal procedures;

– Ensuring the confidentiality and security of processing.

b) “European Strategy for Cybersecurity”

At the end of 2020, the European Commission and the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy of the European Union presented the new version of the cybersecurity strategy for the EU. This strategy encompasses the security of critical infrastructure (railways, hospitals, energy networks) and an increasing number of connected objects in homes, offices, or factories. The European cybersecurity strategy focuses on strengthening collective capabilities to respond to cyber attacks with a major impact and collaborating with international partners to ensure international cybersecurity security and stability. Thus, a firm and efficient response to cyber threats can be ensured through the use of collective resources. At the same time, the strategy aims to enhance Europe’s collective resilience to cyber threats and aims to ensure that all companies and citizens benefit from reliable and trustworthy digital tools and services. Through this strategy, the European Union seeks to become a leader in international norms and standards in cyberspace and unify cooperation with other international partners to promote a stable, open, and secure global cyberspace based on respect for human rights, the rule of law, democratic values, and fundamental freedoms.

c) “Directive on measures for a common high level of security of networks and information systems (NIS Directive)”

The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted on July 6, 2016, “Directive (EU) No. 1148 of 2016 on measures for a common high level of security of networks and information systems in the Union” (NIS Directive). This directive represents the first European legislation regarding cybersecurity, focusing on strengthening cyber authorities at the national level, introducing security requirements for critical infrastructure, and enhancing coordination among cyber authorities. The NIS Directive aims to:

– Ensure a collective level of security for networks and information systems;

– Require digital service providers to take measures contributing to the prevention of cyber attacks and reporting security incidents with a major impact to competent authorities;

– Improve the level of preparedness of European Union member states to address potential cybersecurity incidents;

– Increase citizens’ trust in the Digital Single Market;

– Establish measures and requirements for ensuring security;

– Notify incidents that occur;

– Specifically address essential service operators (transport, energy, health, banking sector, digital infrastructure, financial market, water) and digital service providers (online search engines, online marketplaces, cloud computing services).

Furthermore, the NIS Directive also targets measures to be undertaken by each member state:

– Designating single points of contact at the national level regarding the security of both information systems and networks;

– Ensuring that teams formed to respond to cybersecurity incidents (CSIRT) or competent authorities receive notifications of incidents;

– Designating competent authorities at the national level regarding the security of both information systems and networks;

– Defining and adopting a national strategy regarding the security of both information systems and networks, based on which strategic objectives, policy measures, and appropriate regulations are established.

The NIS Directive represents the most significant European legislative act in the field of cybersecurity. European Union member states are obligated to transpose European legislation, specifically the NIS Directive, at the national level and take necessary measures for successful implementation. In this regard, Romania’s security legislation must be coordinated through the European Union process, similar to other member states, further complicating the country’s ability to address new challenges and risks. Notably, in Romania, the NIS Directive is transposed through the “Law 362/2018 on ensuring a common high level of security for networks and information systems,” which came into effect on January 12, 2019.

In a rapidly changing world, the European Union cybersecurity norms adopted in 2016 (NIS Directive) were updated with the entry into force of NIS2 Directive in 2023, “Directive on measures for a common high level of cybersecurity throughout the Union.” This new directive aimed at modernizing the legal framework to cope with increased digitization and the continuous evolution of current and increasingly numerous cyber threats. Moreover, by expanding the scope of cybersecurity norms to new entities and sectors, the resilience and response capacity to incidents are improved for both public and private entities, as well as competent authorities and the EU as a whole. Online markets or search engines, integral parts of major digital service providers, must adhere to the notification and security requirements outlined in the new directive. The legal measures outlined in the NIS2 Directive aim to increase the overall level of security in Europe by:

– Ensuring cooperation among member states through the creation of a cooperation group to support and facilitate information exchange and strategic cooperation.

– Instilling a security culture across all critical sectors of the economy (digital infra-structure, transportation, energy, healthcare, water, banking, and financial markets).

– Establishing a team to intervene in the event of cybersecurity incidents.

Table No. 1 illustrates how the NIS Directive and the General Data Protection Regulation mutually complement each other, positively impacting cybersecurity at the European level.

Table no. 1. NIS Directive and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

Source: Author’s representation

The importance of cybersecurity

In recent years, there has been a trend of accelerating digital transformation, generating new opportunities and challenges for cybersecurity. Cyber attacks are becoming increasingly costly as citizens and the public sector rely more on technology. Digital transformation is a priority for authorities, focusing on identifying and developing policies to strengthen Europe’s capacity in the new era of digital technologies. The aim is to open new opportunities for consumers and businesses, support the green transition, and help the European Union achieve climate neutrality by 2050. The European Parliament is actively involved in these policies, emphasizing the support for acquiring digital skills, professional training, and the digitization of public services while respecting fundamental rights and values.

As the physical and digital worlds intertwine, new threats emerge, making cybersecurity a priority for the European Union. To better protect European businesses and citizens from potential cyber threats and strengthen cybersecurity measures in all essential sectors, European policymakers adopted various laws in 2022. In this context, the establishment of a European cybersecurity center in Bucharest was approved by the European Parliament in 2021. Additionally, rules were enacted to combat the online dissemination of terrorist content.

Cybersecurity is increasingly crucial in the current context. According to a Eu-ropean Union survey, 28% of European SMEs faced cybercrime in 2021. Small and medium-sized enterprises are concerned about the risk of online account hacking, phishing, viruses, spyware, identity theft attacks, or malware. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a major digital transformation for SMEs, exposing them to significant cyber-criminal activities. The negative effects of cyber attacks extend beyond the economy and finances, threatening the democratic foundations of the EU and disrupting the normal functioning of society. Manipulation and disinformation campaigns are often used in cyber warfare, impacting trust and credibility in information, journalism, and mass media. Cyber attacks, combined with disinformation, conventional military actions, or economic pressures, jeopardize the resilience of democratic institutions and states, increasingly directly affecting European peace and security.

For instance, cyber attacks occurred concurrently with conventional military actions during the Russian-Ukrainian war, according to the ENISA report. Cybersecurity is crucial in safeguarding against unforeseen threats, especially as homes and automobiles become more connected and reliant on technology.

The impact of the war between Russia and Ukraine on cybersecurity

Cybersecurity attacks gained attention during the Kosovo conflict in 1999, becoming a central element in modern-era conflicts. This is evident in cyber attacks by state actors, non-state actors, or semi-state actors during the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine. Cyber attacks may include disinformation campaigns aimed at spreading manipulative information and targeted attacks (e.g., the destruction of gas pipelines in Ukraine in October 2022). In Ukraine, cyber attacks play a crucial role alongside traditional military attacks.

Russia’s cyber attacks can be classified into attacks on civilian population trust and armed forces, control-based attacks, and capability-based attacks. Attacks on trust aim to diminish public trust in the public authority’s ability to defend citizens and provide essential public services (the so-called Chernobyl syndrome). For example, in March 2022, Russian cyber attackers allegedly launched DDOS attacks against the website of the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense, overloading servers to make them un-stable. Control-based attacks involve physical attacks on specific cyber infrastructures to gain control over the adversary’s critical infrastructure. For instance, the projectile strike on television towers in Kiev in March 2022 coincided with a cyber attack on media companies. Capability-based attacks leverage cyber weapons to undermine the opponent’s power by exploiting cyber capabilities to gain access to critical infrastructure and destroy capabilities. An example is the destruction of numerous satellite internet modems in Eastern Europe and Ukraine on the day of the Russian invasion, disrupting communications massively.

Ukraine responded promptly to Russia’s cyber attacks by mobilizing international support and creating a new army of cybersecurity professionals known as the “IT army of Ukraine.” This army, estimated to have over 400,000 volunteers, operates in offensive and defensive units, responsible for cyber espionage against the Russian army and protecting critical infrastructure, respectively. The Ukrainian government coordinated IT army attacks, such as DDOS attacks on banks, large Russian companies supporting infrastructure, or compromising the Russian government’s website. Technology companies, including Google and Microsoft, supported Ukraine against cyber attacks. In the third quarter of 2022, Europe experienced a large-scale hybrid cyber war, with a massive wave of DDoS attacks, especially in the Baltic countries, Nordic countries, and Eastern Europe. DDoS attacks, primarily targeting governments and businesses (75%), aimed to harass and discourage targets from supporting Ukraine. Table 2 presents the number of DDoS attacks in the third quarter of 2022, where 3/4 of the attacks are DDoS attacks, significantly surpassing other types of attacks such as espionage, data theft, or phishing.

Table no. 2. Number of DDoS Attacks by Country in Q3 2022

Source: Author’s representation based on data from Thales report (2023)

In the fourth quarter of 2022, the most numerous cyber attacks were of the DDoS type. However, starting from the year 2023, their number has decreased, as in the first quarter of 2023, the majority of attacks were thefts and data leaks. In terms of the sectors targeted by cyber attacks since the beginning of the global conflict, the most affected were the public sector and local administration (305), followed by the banking and financial sector (162), transportation (132), communications (90), media (89), energy (66), and others. In a rapidly changing world, cyber has become an essential weapon in the arsenal of new tools of warfare, alongside sabotage, manipulation, disinformation, economic warfare, and guerrilla tactics. With the expansion of the conflict from Ukraine to the rest of Europe, European authorities should become more cautious regarding potential attacks on critical infrastructure in the short term, as the conflict tends to escalate.

The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on cybersecurity

The Covid-19 pandemic has been an unprecedented event that managed to alter the lives of billions of people globally, with a powerful impact still felt even after more than 2 years since its onset. The pandemic’s impact on society and businesses has been strong, but it has also created unique circumstances regarding cybercrime, further affecting economic sectors and citizens. The anxiety caused and amplified by the pandemic has increased the success rate of cyber attacks, corresponding with the amplification of the number and range of cyber attacks. Moreover, due to the restrictions imposed by authorities and social distancing measures, many people have had to work from home and spend even more time online, opting for telemedicine or continuing their education remotely, in an online format. In this context, all these individuals needed the internet, computers, cameras, and various software to carry out their activities. Working and studying from home, online, led to increased internet usage, providing more opportunities for cybercrime, ranging from malware and ransomware to spam emails, DoS attacks, and more. Additionally, the home net-works of employees / students may consist of insecure IoT devices and old computers, resulting in insufficient cybersecurity.

Among the most common high-risk behaviors regarding cybersecurity, we find:

– Using public and free Wi-Fi networks.

– Not updating software systems.

– Downloading various files, music, games, movies from unknown sources.

– Using a single password for multiple websites.

– Clicking on links in emails received from unidentified sources.

– Downloading free antivirus software from unidentified sources.

– Entering payment information on any websites.

– Not using a VPN network.

– Using an online storage system for storing and exchanging sensitive information.

In this context, the Covid-19 pandemic has emphasized the importance of digital skills for interaction with others and for work. It has also highlighted the need to increase digital education and address IT knowledge gaps. Working from home has brought new concerns and challenges for public authorities, businesses, and citizens regarding cybersecurity. Cyber attackers have seized this opportunity to expand and diversify their attacks, even using traditional scams that rely on heightened stress, anxiety, and global citizens’ concerns.

As the Covid-19 pandemic rapidly spread globally, it led to significant secondary threats for a technology-based society, namely cyber attacks and indiscriminate cybercrime campaigns, as well as targeted cybercrime campaigns. After the onset of the pandemic, numerous scams aimed at impersonating public authorities, various organizations, and assistance platforms emerged. Cyber attacks even targeted critical national infrastructure, such as healthcare services. An example is the University Hospital in Brno, Czech Republic, which had to shut down all computers on March 13, 2020, as a cyber attack occurred. The hospital was a key testing site for the new virus and had to reject new patients with severe conditions and postpone critical surgeries. The hospital in the Czech Republic was not the only institution of this kind targeted by cybercriminals, as the new virus spread globally, and targets shifted from one continent to another. For instance, the website of a public health department in the United States went offline following a ransomware cyber attack. Another example is the French cybersecurity agency issuing a warning about potential ransomware attacks targeting French public authorities.

As the number of people infected with the new virus increased globally, hackers intensified their activities against manufacturing, tourism, the pharmaceutical sector, insurance, and healthcare. In response to these attacks, on April 8, 2020, the joint advisory of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the U.K. National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) addressed how cybercriminals and advanced adversaries exploit the pandemic. This advisory also addressed security issues related to malware, phishing, and the compromise of communication platforms, such as Microsoft Teams or Zoom.

CONCLUSIONS

Cybersecurity represents a complex and continuously evolving field strongly influenced by the diversification and development of threats in the online environment. Cybersecurity aspects need to be addressed differently depending on the impact of threats on system security. Cybersecurity involves minimal protective measures at the individual level for threats with low impact, while at the level of organizations or public institutions where the impact can be significant on critical infrastructure, extensive security measures are required. The widespread adoption of digital technologies has shifted the majority of activities online, from social interactions and shopping to industry, business, and even crime. In the context of the pandemic, cybercrime has increased in frequency and severity, with numerous risks emerging due to population actions and technological system failures. IoT-based applications and telecommuting have become vulnerable to cyber attacks. Telemedicine provides a way to protect patients and medical staff from infection with the new virus, but it creates risks of confidentiality and cybersecurity. The pandemic has ushered in a new era of cyber awareness as businesses send employees to work from home with limited security, and in this regard, virtual private networks and servers play a crucial role in the future of cybersecurity.

Cybercrime incidents resulting from the pandemic pose major threats to the global economy, and therefore, understanding the mechanisms, propagation, and spread of these new threats becomes essential. The war in Ukraine has highlighted how vulnerable states can be to cyber attacks and how much they rely on transnational technology companies. Russia targeted critical infrastructure, both Ukrainian and beyond, and attacks on information infrastructure (such as disinformation campaigns) were continuous, endangering the security of energy infrastructure that is vital not only for Ukraine but also for the European Union. The war in Ukraine has shown that cybersecurity is not just a military issue but a societal one, and in times of war, private technology companies play an essential role.

Considering the ongoing technological development trend, threats will continue to exist in cyberspace and even diversify and multiply. In this sense, it is important to identify optimal measures to reduce and eliminate threats. Moreover, considering that the world has changed, cybersecurity needs to catch up.

In conclusion, globalization has had a significant impact on cybersecurity, accentuating the complexity and breadth of potential threats, expanding the attack surface, and introducing new security risks. As a result, cybersecurity strategies must now address a wide range of factors, from the global nature of cyber networks to the security implications associated with IT services outsourcing.

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